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In the present work we use a quantitative multivariate approach (Geometric

Morphometrics and Multiple Correspondence methods) to assess the relationship between

artificial cranial morphology and grave goods diversity. We studied the deformation

patterns of populations settled in Arica, the watershed of Loa River and the area of San

Pedro de Atacama during the Formative and Late Intermediate Periods. We used lateral-

view X-rays of 216 individuals belonging to 7 archaeological sites and, when possible,

these individuals were correlated with the corresponding funerary context. In this study,

the funerary context is represented in detail and the results indicate that the differences in

social identity between the individuals do not correlate with cranial morphology. However,

the deformation patterns do vary in relation with the networks of interaction among the

sites. These results support the first hypothesis and contradict the second.

1. INTRODUCTION

Artificial cranial deformation (henceforth ACD) is a cultural practice of corporal

modification worldwide distributed (Dembo & Imbelloni 1938; Weiss 1962; Stewart 1973;

Gerszten & Gerszten 1995), showing high demographic frequencies among pre-hispanic

South-American populations (Dingwall 1931; Perez 2007). Its main effect is the permanent

modification of the normal pattern of growth and development of the skull, by using

different deforming devices during the first years of post-natal life (Manrquez et al. 2006).

Although several causal explanations for ACD have been proposed, the question about

why humans deformed skull vaults remains still open (Gerszten & Gerszten 1995;

Schijman 2005). These answers certainly depend on the specific cultural history of each

group under study.

In the South Central Andes ACD appears early in the archaeological record (Munizaga,

1980; Torres-Rouff & Yablonsky, 2005) and spans in Northern Chile for around 4000years (Munizaga, 1980, 1987; Manrquez et al. 2006). Two main explanations have been

proposed to elucidate the origin of this practice in this area: i) ACD was an inter-group

identity symbol, therefore it was used as a social adscription sign to distinguish between

different groups of the region (Torres-Rouff 2002 and 2007) and ii) ACD was a symbol of

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intra-group identity, used to denote the social position of an individual or group within the

social hierarchy (Cassels 1972; Munizaga 1987; Molleson & Campbell 1995).

Traditionally ACD has been studied in a descriptive-typological manner, classifying skulls

in a priori categories defined merely by eyeballing (e.g. Dembo & Imbelloni 1938;

Neumann, 1942; Weiss, 1962). Despite the straightforwardness and wide application of

this approach, this method has several limitations: i) the reduction of the total

morphological variance of the skulls into a discrete and limited number of categories that

supposedly can describe without any drawbacks the morphological continuum of

craniofacial variation, and ii) the difficulty to compare the results obtained by different

researchers, due the high subjectivity of the method and the lack of well-defined

classification criteria. In order to overcome some of these limitations, some researchershave applied linear morphometrics to classify ACD by applying multivariate statistics

(Clark et al. 2007). Despite the fact that these methodologies increase objectivity and

describe in a better way the subtleties of morphological variation, the absence of an

appropriate mathematical background to separate shape and size components of variation

led the application of geometric morphometrics to analyze ACD (Frie and Baylac, 2003;

Manrquez et al. 2006, 2011; Prez, 2007 and Prez et al. 2009). As compared with

traditional morphometrics, it is based in a coherent and well developed statistical theory of

shape and allows a direct visualization of the patterns of shape variation (Zelditch et al.

2004; Slice, 2007; Slice, 2010).

The Atacama desert, the area of this study, extends over 3500 km. between the 15S and

26 S (Rauh 1985). Despite the presence of scarce fertile and verdant oases in the area (eg.

San pedro de Atacama, Calama, Pica), it is considered as the driest desert in the world.

This severe environment has been the scenario of a long and fruitful history of settlement.

Numerous archaeological evidences demonstrate that oases has been occupied since theFormative period (ca. 3.000-1.850 B.P.) by agro-pastoralist groups passing through strong

processes of cultural influence and exchange with the Tiwanaku culture during the Middle

period (ca. 1.550-950 B.P.) (Berenguer & Dauelsberg 1989; Hubbe et al. 2012). Following

these periods, in a phase know as the Late Intermediate period (ca. 950-500 B.P.)

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(Schiappacasse et al. 1989), this area has been characterized by the development of

regional identity traits divided in traditional grouping areas (ayllus).The last prehistoric

stage of Atacama desert populations is the Late period (550-600 B.P.), defined by the

arrival of the Inca culture and its decline and ending by the Spaniards invasion (Berenguer

et al. 1986).

Archeological sites from the region show ACD frequencies from 50% on average (SPA

oases) to even 90% (Chorrillos cemetery, Middle Loa Basin) (Gonzlez and Westfall 2006;

Torres-Rouff , 2007). These high ACD frequencies in the prehistoric populations from

Northern Chile, state the problem about the possible motivations underlying this body

modification practice. In order to address two possible explanations for this question

(inter-group vs. intra-group identity hypotheses), ACD patterns from different regionswere compared synchronically and diachronically by means of geometric morphometrics.

Associations between ACD patterns and differential funerary goods were established

applying a multiple correspondence analysis, which make it possible to retain all the

available information of grave goods.

2. MATERIALThe total sample was composed by 216 skull radiographies (aligned according to Frankfurtplane) from northern Chile archaeological sites of the Formative and Late Intermediate

periods (Table 1). These radiographic records are housed in the Program of Human

Genetics, ICBM, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile. As adulthood criterion, the

closure of the spheno-occipital synchondrosis and/or third molar final eruption were used

(Powell & Brodie 1963; Hillson 1996). These radiographies correspond to four geographic

areas (Figure 1): San Pedro de Atacama, Superior Loa, Middle Loa and Arica (This last

region was incorporated in order to test the inter-group hypothesis). Besides this

radiographic record, archaeological information from the graves was included to test the

intra-group hypothesis. This information was obtained from the fieldwork report of the

Regimiento Chorrillos archaeological excavation and from the field logs of Tchecar and

Catarpe 2 sites written by Fr. Le Paige, S.J., during his surveys and excavations in San

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Pedro de Atacama Oases. The remaining archaeological sites did not have available

funerary context information.

Table 1. Sample of archaeological sites used in this study.

Site Geographic

Area

Period N.R. N.G.

Regimiento

Chorrillos

Middle Loa

Basin

Formative 31 30

Chunchuri Middle Loa

Basin

Late

Intermediate

33 0

Caspana Superior Loa Late

Intermediate

39 0

Solor 3 San Pedro de

Atacama

Formative 17 6

Tchecar San Pedro de

Atacama

Late

Intermediate

46

Catarpe 2 San Pedro de

Atacama

Late

Intermediate

44 36

Playa

Miller 7

Arica Formative 6 0

N.R: Number of radiographies. N.G: Number of individuals with funerary context

information available.

Caption Figure 1. Map showing the approximate location of sites.

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3. METHODThe radiographs were taken using tube voltage of 60 Kv, 2 mA and exposure time was of 2

seconds, with a 2 m target-film (Geo-Ray II)distance. Later these radiographic plates weredigitized using an Epson Expression 10000 XL scanner (300pp resolution).

Sex and deformation were estimated according to standard bioanthropological techniques

based on cranial morphology (Walrath et al. 2004).

After this first step, a standard workflow on Geometric Morphometrics was carried out.

This branch of shape analysis has been usually understood as the quantitative study of

shape and its covariates (Bookstein, 1991), mainly consisting in three steps: a) collectingprimary data through the acquisition of Cartesian coordinates, b) obtaining variables

describing shape change (shape components) after a generalized Procrustes analysis, and c)

the multivariate statistical analysis of the shape variables.

Landmark coordinates were collected using TPSdig 2.16 v. software (Rohlf 2010). On

each skull 12 landmarks were digitized (Table 2). Geometric morphometrics and statistical

analysis were carried out in MorphoJ (Klingenberg, 2011), and Past (Hammer, 2001).ACD and sex classifications were corroborated using a cross-validated discriminant

analysis and a Hotellings T2 test evaluating, the level of matching with the a priori

classification and the significance of the differences between group multivariate means,

respectively.

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Table 2. Landmarks used in this study.

Number Landmark Reference

1 Glabella Martin y Saller (1957)

2 Bregma Martin y Saller (1957)

3 Frontal Martin y Saller (1957)

4 Lambda Martin y Saller (1957)

5 Boveda Manrquez et al.2006

6 Ophistion Martin y Saller (1957)

7 Occipital Salinas, 2010

8 Basion Martin y Saller (1957)

9 PosteriorClinoid

Process

Martin y Saller (1957)

10 Frontomaxilare Martin y Saller (1957)

11 Nasospinale Martin y Saller (1957)

12 Posterior Nasal

Spine

Martin y Saller (1957)

3.1 Intra-group Hypothesis testing:

Explorative analyses were carried out in the frequency data from the funerary contexts.

This qualitative data set was examined executing a multiple correspondence analysis

(MCA) in Xlstat (2012). This technique is a data reduction method that generates a

reduced number of new variables that maximize the total variance of the sample.

The MCA was applied to Tchecar and Catarpe 2 using their archeological context

information. The artifacts preservation in the Chorrillos site was not as good as for the

other archeological sites, therefore instead of using that information, the spatial distribution

of the graves within the cemetery was employed.

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deformed individuals. In the case of the non-deformed, we considered the first 13 principal

components, while for the deformed individuals we considered 12 components, which

explain approximately 95% of the variance in each case. The significance of these

distances was evaluated by means of Hotelling's T2 Test with Bonferroni Correction.

The results of these two tests are set out in Table 3, which shows that no significant

differences were found among the non-deformed individuals, regardless of the site. In the

case of the deformed individuals, several comparisons showed significant differences, the

Chorrillos site being the one with the most different deformation pattern. The diachronic

comparisons of this test show that, for San Pedro de Atacama, there are no differences of

statistical significance between deformed individuals in any of the sites (Hotelling'sT2 test, p

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Table 3: Mahalanobis Distance,pvalue (in parentheses), of the Hotelling T2 test between

deformed (lower left triangle) skulls of each site and not deformed skulls (upper right

triangle).Significant values are in bold.

Solor3

Tchecar Catarpe2

Caspana RegimientoChorrillos

Chunchuri

PlayaMiller 7

Solor 3 0 0,83(0,93)

1,57(0,57)

6,38(0,57)

ID 3,909(0,587)

ID

Tchecar 6,5(0,56)

0 1,54(0,3)

6,52(0,23)

ID 3,087(0,476)

ID

Catarpe

2

2,61

(0,99)

4,85

(0,28)

0 5,68

(0,27)

ID 9,452

(0,956)

ID

Caspana 6,61(0,08)

8,85

p

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percentage of skulls correctly assigned in the cross-validation table (Table 4), the smaller

Mahalanobis distance compared to the other sites (Table 3), and the shared distribution

area in the PCA graphic (Figure 3) which is greater than the distribution areas shared with

other sites.

Caption Figure 2.UPGMA tree based on the geometric morphometrics distance

(Procrustes distances) between the consensuses configurations of the sample used in this

study.

Table 4. Cross-validation test of deformed skulls. The table list the percentage of

deformed skulls correctly assigned to each site according to the discriminant analysis. Itshould be read horizontally for correct interpretation.

Solor3

Tchecar Catarpe2

Caspana R.Ch. N.C. PM 7

Solor3

100 73,3 61,5 87,5 46,6 33,3 66,6

Tchecar 50 100 69,2 91,6 86,6 46,7 33,3Catarpe

2

33,3 66,7 100 78 93,3 60 100

Caspana 66,7 80 76,9 100 83,3 66,7 83,3R.Ch. 66,7 93,3 100 90,6 100 53,3 50N.C. 33,3 80 61,5 90,6 86,7 100 33,3PM 7 83,3 53,3 100 90,6 86,6 80 100

Caption Figure 3. Relative warp analysis (Principal component analysis and thin plate

spline) of all deformed skulls. The grids represent the magnitude and direction of the

variation in the skull form along the x and y axes of the bivariate graph (RW1 = 30.29%and RW2 = 17.6% of the total variance). The skulls of Regimiento Chorrillos are

represented with filled triangles, Chunchuri with circles, Caspana with crosses, Solor 3

with squares, Tchecar with filled diamonds, Catarpe with triangles and Playa Miller 7 with

stars.

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In these same tests, the Tchecar and Chorrillos sites have the highest Mahalanobis

distances (Table 3) and, in the PCA graphic, they are the sites most distant from each other

along the first dimension (X-axis), which explains 30.29% of the total variance (Figure 3).

Morphologically, skulls located further to the right along the X-axis have a greater height

of the cranial vault and a smaller anteroposterior distance. In other words, skulls that are

more erect with respect to the Frankfurt plane are located further to the right of the graph,

while the more oblique skull shapes are located towards the left.

4.2 Intra-Group Distinctions

The following section shows the multiple correspondence graphics for Catarpe 2 andTchecar.

For Catarpe 2, the first two dimensions explain 36.99% and 19.93% of the total variance

(Figure 4). The graph shows that the biggest differences between individuals do not

correspond to the presence or absence of grave goods, but to the presence or absence of

certain types of objects in the graves. These major variances are explained by objects

having low frequencies in the graves, and especially by the association of these grave

goods with others that are also infrequent, for example bows and arrows, textiles,

iconographic drug consumption paraphernalia and cucurbits. These last three categories

also make a large contribution to the first two dimensions at Tchecar, explaining 23.75%

and 21.14% of the variance in grave goods (Figure 5). Nevertheless, grave goods as a

whole do make some contribution to the variance (the contribution to the first two

dimensions ranged between 0.010 and 0.25)

Caption Figure 4.Multiple correspondence analysis for the grave goods at Catarpe 2. B:

Presence of baskets. Bu-1 y E-2: Single and multiple burials. Cu: Curcubits. D.P.-1 andD.P-2: iconographic and undecorated drug consumption paraphernalia. Es-0, 1, 2 and 3:

Status levels (see below). Ha: Hats. M-1, M-2: beads and metal ornaments. P: pottery. S-

0 and S-1: Male and female. Te: Textile. T-1, T-2, T-3, T-4 and T-5: bows and arrows,

awls, tie hooks (used to tie bundles to llamas), spindles, and several tools in the same

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grave, respectively. Gray labels represent the absence of the above grave goods. Light

gray labels are supplementary variables.

Caption Figure 5. Multiple correspondence analysis for the grave goods at Tchecar. B:

Baskets. Bu-1 and Bu-2: single and multiple burials. Cu: Curcubits. DP-1 and DP-2:

iconographic and undecorated drug consumption paraphernalia. M: beads. P: Presence of

pottery. T1, T2, T3, T4: bows and arrows, spindles, tie hook and several tools in the same

grave, respectively. Te: textile. Gray labels represent the absence of the above grave goods.

Light gray labels are supplementary variables.

In order to determine whether the main differences in grave goods correspond to gravegoods associated with status, we created a priorivariables of status in accordance with the

definitions given by archaeological literature (i.e. textiles (Murra, 1976), metals (Barn

and Serracino, 1980) and iconographic drug consumption paraphernalia (Llagostera et al.,

1988, and Torres, 1984). Individuals in the first (lowest) status level had none of these

objects (Es-0), while high-status individuals had a maximum of 3 of these objects (Es-3).

This analysis was done for Catarpe 2 (where there was presence of status objects in several

of the graves), but not for Tchecar.

Figure 4 shows that levels Es-2 and Es-3 are located at the extremities of the first two

dimensions, which mean they are indeed associated with grave goods that make a large

contribution to the variance.

These graphics also show that the supplementary variables sexand type of burialare

located near the center of both the X and Y axes, which means that they do not affect the

distribution of grave goods in the tombs.

Finally, the Mantel test computed between morphological (Procrustes) distances and the

Euclidean distances (calculated on the basis of the symmetric graph of the multiple

correspondence analysis), produced a non-significant correlation ( Solor 3 r: 0.12 andp

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value 0.3. Tchecar: -0,08 and 0,76. Catarpe 2: -0.08 and 0.76). Similar results were

obtained by the Mantel test correlating the Procrustes distances and the quantity of objects

in the tombs (Tchecar r: 0.21 and p value: 0.11. Catarpe 2 0.16 and 0.84. The sample size

of Solor 3 was to small to run this test). The results of the Mantel test for the Regimiento

Chorrillos site were also not significant (r: 0.04,pvalue: 0.5).

5. DISCUSSION

5.1 The relation between ACD and grave goods (H2: Intra-Group Distinction

Hypothesis)

The analysis of the evidence does not support the Intra-Group hypothesis. Althoughmultiple correspondence analysis is capable of clearly distinguishing the identity of the

individuals, these differences do not correlate with the shape of the skull (Mantel test). Nor

is there a relation between Procrustes distances and the number of objects in the graves, or

between Procrustes distances and the location in which the individuals were buried

(Regimiento Chorrillos).

To test H2, we performed multivariate tests considering two factors simultaneously: the

variability of the grave goods as a whole, and the continuous variations of cranial shapes in

the sites (Procrustes distances). We concluded that the social identity of an individual has

to be defined by the grave goods as a whole, without discarding any of the objects a priori,

unless it has been shown that certain objects contribute very little to the variance of the

grave goods.

The contribution of the objects to the variance of the grave goods varies from site to site.

However, some of the objects have a similar marked influence on the variance in both

Catarpe 2 and Tchecar. At both sites, we find certain tools (spindles, shovels, axes), metalobjects and iconographic drug consumption paraphernalia, which make a big contribution

to the variance of the grave goods and to the identity of the individual. If future studies

were to show that this is a common pattern for different geographically-distant sites,

comparisons of identity could be made not just within the sites, but also between them.

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5.2 Deformation patterns and their mutual relations (H1: Inter-Group Distinction

Hypothesis)

The results of this study indicate that during the two periods in question, there were two

quite different deformation patterns (erect and inclined). This is in agreement with the

observations made by Manrquez et al.(2006). However, the cranial shape of the great

majority of deformed individuals falls into a continuous range of variations between these

two extremes (Figure 3), making it difficult to assign these skulls a priori into either

category, as is done by the Dembo and Imbelloni method (1938), which is used in most of

the studies of ACD in the South Central Andes. Geometric morphometrics made it possible

to maintain the data of all the variations of cranial shapes without having to classify theminto apriori typological categories.

Based on the above data, we can say that the deformation patterns vary over time in certain

areas, while other areas show no significant changes: in San Pedro de Atacama there is

continuity in the deformation patterns between the Formative Period and later periods (end

of the Middle and Late Intermediate Periods), as shown by the Hotelling T2 test (Table 3)

and the principal component graphic (Figure 3).

The deformation patterns in the sites of the Middle Loa had not previously been compared

between themselves or with other areas. The results of this study indicate that, unlike San

Pedro de Atacama, the deformation patterns of the human groups living in the Middle Loa

vary significantly between the two time periods in question.

It is interesting to note that while Chorrillos has the largest Mahalanobis distances of all

the sites, Chunchuri (same area, different period) is more similar to the sites of San Pedro

de Atacama (with which it has no significant differences (Figure 3 and Table 3). The

smallest Mahalanobis distance of Chorrillos is with the Arica coastal site Playa Miller 7

(Table 3, Table 4 and Figure 3), which is from an equivalent time period, but located in thecoast of the Pacific Ocean at a distance of over 400 kms (Figure 1). Regarding this point it

is interesting to mention that the archaeological context at Chorrillos reveals the existence

of specialized exchange networks with the coast, San Pedro de Atacama, the southern

Altiplano, and northwestern Argentina (Gonzlez y Westfall, 2006).

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The archaeological literature has concluded that transformation into a Formative society in

northern Chile was marked by interaction networks with foreign groups, especially with

the Altiplano, and in lesser extent with the Atacama Plateau and the nor-west Argentina

(Muoz, 1989). Regarding ACD patterns, Arica and the Altiplano have shown no

significant differences (Pschel, 2012). So, these interaction networks of these populations

may also explain the resemblance between Arica and Chorrillos ACD patterns.

As for the similarity between Chunchuri and the sites of San Pedro de Atacama during the

Late intermediate Period, the literature concludes thatwith some local exceptions- there

existed an Atacamea cultural unit during this period, which is expressed, for example, in

regional textile styles (Agero, 2000) and funerary ceramics (Uribe, 2002). To conclude,

these interaction networks may explain the similarities in the deformation patterns duringthis period and indicated the importance of San Pedro de Atacama in this common identity.

Briefly, our results show that ACD patterns vary in relation with interaction networks and

supra-regional identities.

6. CONCLUSIONSThe results of this study do not support the Intra-Group Distinction Hypothesis. The

differences in social identity between individuals of each site were represented in great

detail. However, these variations do not correlate with the morphology of the deformed

and non-deformed skulls.

On the contrary, the deformation patterns could be related with ethnic ascriptions and

interaction networks between geographically distant groups as has been described in the

literature. The deformation patterns may vary over time, and when they do so, they are

influenced by deformation patterns of other groups in the interaction network. These

conclusions support the Inter-Group Distinction hypothesis.This study evidenced the need to represent grave goods and cranial morphologies as

objectively and precisely as possible. Future studies should consider large numbers of

synchronous archaeological sites over extensive geographical areas, in order to observe

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relations between deformation patterns and interaction networks in South America, where

ACD was extensively practiced.

Acknowledgements.

We wish to give special thanks to Juan Carlos Salinas and Alejandro Daz, who took the

X-ray images used in this study, and for his valuable advice. We also wish to thank Diego

Salazar for his guidance and assistance in the archaeological analysis and Giancarlo Bucchi

for his held in writing this text. Finally, we wish to thanks to Manuel Arturo Torres from

Museo R. P. Gustavo Le Paige,Corporacin de Cultura y Turismo (Calama), to Bernardo

Arriaza from Museo San Miguel de Azapa (Arica) and to Philippe Mennecier, Vronique

Laborde and Aurelie Fort fromMuse de l'Homme (Paris) for the access to thebioanthropological collections.

This study was financed by Proyecto Anillo ACT-96, Programa de Investigacin

Asociativa, Conicyt, Chile (G. M.).

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